Methods for obtaining polarized xenon for magnetic resonance imaging. Review
Grigoriev G Y1, Lagutin A S1
1National Research Center “Kurchatov Institute”, Moscow, Russia
Email: lagutin_as@nrcki.ru
A review of experimental studies and design developments of devices for obtaining nuclear-spin hyperpolarized 129Xe by optical pumping of rubidium vapor with subsequent spin exchange with noble gas isotope atoms is presented. Hyperpolarized 129Xe atom is an excellent probe in magnetic resonance imaging in studies of lung structure and function, and biomarkers based on it are applicable for the diagnosis of a wide range of both pulmonary and other diseases. The principles of operation, advantages and disadvantages of polarizer design options are outlined. The main attention is paid to new approaches and technical solutions that determine the trends in the development of the methodology. Keywords: hyperpolarized xenon, lasers, optical pumping, nuclear magnetic resonance, magnetic resonance imaging.
- Prikaz MZ RF 8 oktyabrya 1999 . N 363. O razreshenii meditsinskogo primeneniya lekarstvennykh sredstv (1999). (in Russian) https://docs.cntd.ru/document/901746690
- Sbornik metodicheskikh rekomendatsiy (pod obschey redaktsiey Potapova A.V.) Primenenie ksenona v klinicheskoy praktike (NKO ASMG, M., 2019) (in Russian)
- J.P. Hornak. The Basics of MRI (Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, 1996)
- H. Marshall, N.J. Stewart, Ho-Fung Chan, M. Rao, G. Norquay, J.M. Wild. Progr. Nucl. Magn, Reson. Spectr., 122, 42 (2021). DOI: 10.1016/j.pnmrs.2020.11.002
- D.A. Barskiy, A.M. Coffey, P. Nikolaou, D.M. Mikhaylov, B.M. Goodson, R. Branca, G.J. Lu, M.G. Shapiro, Ville-Veikko Telkki, V.V. Zhivonitko, I.V. Koptyug, O.G. Salnikov, K.V. Kovtunov, V.I. Bukhtiyarov, M. Rosen, M.J. Barlow, S.S. Safavi, I.P. Hall, L. Schroder, E.V. Chekmenev. Chem. A Europ. J., 23 (4), 725 (2017). DOI: 10.1002/chem.201603884
- B.M. Goodson, N. Whiting, A.M. Coffey, P. Nikolaou, F. Shi, M.E. Gemeinhardt, R.V. Shchepin, J.G. Skinner, J.R. Birchall, M.J. Barlow, E.Y. Chekmenev. Encyclopedia of Magnetic Resonance, 4, 797 (2015). DOI: 10.1002/9780470034590.emrstm1457
- Hyperpolarized 129Xe Magnetic Resonance: Concepts, Production, Techniques and Applications, ed. by T. Meersmann, E. Brunner (Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry, 2015)
- MRI of the Lung, ed. by H.U. Kauczor, M.O. Wielputz (Springer International Publishing AG, 2018)], DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-42617-4
- M.L. Hirsch, N. Kalechofsky, A. Belzer, M. Rosay, J.G. Kempf. J. Am. Chem. Soc., 137 (26), 8428 (2015). DOI: 10.1021/jacs.5b01252
- T.G. Walker, W. Happer. Rev. Modern Phys., 69, 629 (1997). DOI:10.1103/REVMODPHYS.69.629
- M. Tamski, J. Milani, C. Roussel, J.-Ph. Ansermet. Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys., 22, 17769 (2020). DOI: 10.1039/d0cp00984a
- K.M. Ward, A.H. Aletras, R.S. Balaban. J. Magn. Reson., 143 (1), 79 (2000). DOI: 10.1006/JMRE.1999.1956
- K.H. Mok, P. Hore. Methods, 34 (1), 75 (2004). DOI:10.1016/J.YMETH.2004.03.006
- R.W. Adams, J.A. Aguilar, A.D. Atkinson, M.J. Cowley, P.I. Elliott, S.B. Duckett, G.G. Green, I.G. Khazal, J. Lopez-Serrano, D.C. Williamson. Science, 323, 1708 (2009). DOI:10.1126/science.1168877
- E. Vaneeckhaute, S. De Ridder, J.M. Tyburn, J.G. Kempf, F. Taulelle, J.A. Martens, E. Breynaert. Chem. Phys. Chem., 22 (12), 1150 (2021). DOI: 10.1002/cphc.202100360
- J. Brossel, A. Kastler. Comptes Rendus., 229 (23), 1213 (1949)
- A. Kastler. J. Phys. Radium, 11 (6), 255 (1950). DOI: 10.1051/jphysrad:01950001106025500
- J. Brossel, A. Kastler, J. Winter. J. Phys. Radium, 13 (12), 668 (1952). DOI: 10.1051/jphysrad:019520013012066800
- A. Kastler. UFN, 93 (1), 5 (1967) (in Russian) DOI: 10.3367/UFNr.0093.196709b.0005
- E.A. Tagirov. Foton. In kn.: Fizicheskiy entsiklopedicheskiy slovar / Gl. red. A.M. Prokhorov (Sov. entsiklopediya, M., 1983) (in Russian) http://es.niv.ru/doc/dictionary/physical/index.htm
- G.Yu. Grigoriev, Sh.Sh. Nabiev. Khimicheskaya fizika, 37 (5), 3 (2018) (in Russian). DOI: 10.7868/S0207401X18050011
- C.V. Rice, D. Raftery. J. Chem. Phys., 117 (12), 5632 (2002). DOI: 10.1063/1.1500733
- W. Happer, E. Miron, S. Schaefer, W.A. Van Wijngaarden, X. Zeng. Phys. Rev. A, 29, 3092 (1984). DOI: 10.1103/PHYSREVA.29.3092
- S. Appelt, A. Ben-Amar Baranga, C. Erickson, M.V. Romalis, A.R. Young. Phys. Rev. A, 58 (2), 1412 (1998). DOI: 10.1103/PHYSREVA.58.1412
- M. Kelley, R. Branca. J. Appl. Phys., 129, 154901 (2021). DOI: 10.1063/5.0037440
- T. Walker. Rev. Modern Phys., 69 (2), 629 (1997). DOI: 10.1103/REVMODPHYS.69.629
- Hyperpolarized and Inert Gas MRI: From Technology to Application in Research and Medicine, ed. by M.S. Albert, F.T. Hane (Elsevier, Amsterdam, 2017)
- W. Happer. Rev. Modern Phys., 44, 169 (1972). DOI: 10.1103/RevModPhys.44.169
- W. Happer, Yuan-Yu Jau, T. Walker. Optically Pumped Atoms. (WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH \& Co. KGaA, Weinheim, 2010)
- A.L. Zook, B.B. Adhyaru, C.R. Bowers. J. Magn. Reson., 159 (2), 175 (2002). DOI: 10.1016/s1090-7807(02)00030-7
- P. Nikolaou, A.M. Coffey, L.L. Walkup, B.M. Gust, N. Whiting, H. Newton, S. Barcus, I. Muradyan, M. Dabaghyan, G.D. Moroz, M.S. Rosen, S. Patz, M.J. Barlow, E. Chekmenev, B.M. Goodson. Proceed. National Academy Sci. (PNAS), 110 (35), 14150 (2013). DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1306586110
- A.S. Khan, R.L. Harvey, J.R. Birchall, R.K. Irwin, P. Nikolaou, G. Schrank, K. Emami, A. Dummer, M.J. Barlow, B.M. Goodson, E.Y. Chekmenev. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 60, 22126 (2021). DOI: 10.1002/anie.202015200
- B. Driehuys, G.D. Cates, E. Miron, K. Sauer, D.K. Walter, W. Happer. Appl. Phys. Lett., 69, 1668 (1996). DOI: 10.1063/1.117022
- U. Ruth, T. Hof, J. Schmidt, D. Fick, H.J. Jansch. Appl. Phys. B, 68, 93 (1999). DOI: 10.1007/S003400050592
- Elektronik resurs Rezhim dostupa "INZhEKT Rosatom" Awebdesign Studio, 2020 (in Russian) https://nppinject.ru/produktsiya/ [Date of access: 31 01 2022]
- A. Zook, C.R. Bowers. High Capacity Production of > 40% Spin Polarized Xenon-129 for NMR and MRI Applications at the NHMFL. NHMFL Reports Fall 2001 (NHMFL, Florida State University, 2001)
- V.I. Bakhmutov. NMR Spectroscopy in Liquids and Solids (CRC Press, N. Y., 2015), DOI: 10.1201/b18341
- H. Zhu, I.C. Ruset, F.W. Hersman. Opt. Lett., 30 (11), 1342 (2005). DOI: 10.1364/OL.30.001342
- B.L. Volodin, S.V. Dolgy, E.D. Melnik, E. Downs. Opt. Lett., 29 (16), 1891 (2004). DOI: 10.1364/OL.29.001891
- N. Whiting, P. Nikolaou, N.A. Eschmann, M.J. Barlow, R. Lammert, J. Ungar, W. Hu, L. Vaissie, B.M. Goodson. Appl. Phys. B, 106 (4), 775 (2012). DOI: 10.1007/S00340-012-4924-X
- P. Siddons, C.S. Adams, C. Ge, G. Hughes. J. Phys. B. Atom. Mol. Opt. Phys., 41 (15), 155004 (2008). DOI: 10.1088/0953-4075/41/15/155004
- A. Banerjee, D. Das, V. Natarajan. Europhys. Lett., 65 (2), 172 (2004). DOI: 10.1209/EPL/I2003-10069-3
- G. Norquay. PhD thesis. Spin-Exchange Optical Pumping and Nuclear Magnetic Resonance of 129Xe. (Sheffield, United Kingdom: Royal Hallamshire Hospital, 2014)
- J.G. Skinner. PhD thesis. Optimization of Xenon-Rich Stopped-Flow Spin-Exchange Jptical Pumping for Functional Lung Imaging (Nottingham, University of Nottingham, 2016)
- J.R. Birchall, R.K. Irwin, P. Nikolaou, A.M. Coffey, B.E. Kidd, M. Murphy, M. Molway, L.B. Bales, K. Ranta, M. Barlow, B.M. Goodson, M. Rosen, E. Chekmenev. J. Magn. Res., 319, 106813 (2020). DOI: 10.1016/j.jmr.2020.106813
- M.S. Freeman. PhD thesis. The Efficiency Limits of Spin Exchange Optical Pumping Methods of 129Xe Hyperpolarization: Implications for in vivo MRI Applications (Duke University, Durham, 2015)
- B.C. Anger, G. Schrank, A. Schoeck, K.A. Butle, M.S. Solu, R.J. Pugmire, B. Saam. Phys. Rev. A, 78, 043406 (2008). DOI: 10.1103/PhysRevA.78.043406
- S. Breeze, S. Lang, I. Moudrakovski, C. Ratclif. J. Appl. Phys., 87, 8013 (2000). DOI: 10.1063/1.373489
- T. Pa asz, L. Mikowskaa, B. G owacz, Z. Olejniczak, M. Suchanek, T. Dohnalik. Acta Phys. Polonica A, 136 (6), 1008 (2019). DOI: 10.12693/APhysPolA.136.1008
- L. Repetto, S. Zimmer, F. Allmendinger, P. Blumler, M. Doll, J.O. Grasdijk, W. Heil, K. Jungmann, S. Karpuk, H. Krause, A. Offenhausser, U. Schmidt, Y. Sobolev, L. Willmann. J. Magn. Res., 265, 197 (2016). DOI: 10.1016/j.jmr.2016.02.011
- N.N. Kuzma, B. Patton, K. Raman, W. Happer. Phys. Rev. Lett., 88 (14), 147602 (2002). DOI: 10.1103/PHYSREVLETT.88.147602
- M. Repetto, P. Blumler, W. Heil, S. Karpuk, K. Tullney, E. Babcock. J. Magn. Res., 252, 187 (2015). DOI: 10.1016/j.jmr.2015.01.015
- E.G. Sorte, B.V. Fine, B. Saam. Phys. Rev. B, 85 (17), 174425 (2012). DOI: 10.1103/PhysRevB.85.174425
- M.S. Rosen, T.E. Chupp, K.P. Coulter, R.C. Welsh, S.D. Swanson. Rev. Scien. Instrum., 70 (2), 1546 (1999). DOI: 10.1063/1.1149622
- N.J. Shah, T. Unlu, H.P. Wegener, H. Halling, R. Zilles, S. Appelt. NMR in Biomedicine, 13 (4), 214 (2000). DOI: 10.1002/1099-1492(200006)13:4<214::AID-NBM634>3.0.CO;2-G
- J.C. Leawoods, B.T. Saam, M.S. Conradi. Chem. Phys. Lett., 327, 359 (2000). DOI: 10.1016/S0009-2614(00)00908-8
- L.J. Smith, J. Smith, E. Mac Namara, K. Knagge, D. Raftery. J. Phys. Chem. B, 105, 1412 (2001). DOI: 10.1021/JP0032309
- C.V. Rice, D. Raftery. J. Chem. Phys., 117 (12), 5632 (2002). DOI: 10.1063/1.1500733
- A. Wakai, J. Kershow, K. Nakamura, H. Iida, H. Tamura, Y. Kondon, I. Kanno. Magn. Res. Med. Sci., 2 (4), 189 (2003). DOI: 10.1002/1099-1492(200006)13:4<220::AID-NBM638>3.0.CO;2-F
- B. Driehuys, J. Pollaro, G.P. Cofer. Magn. Res. Med., 60 (1), 14 (2008). DOI: 10.1002/mrm.21651
- H. Imai, J. Fukutomi, A. Kimura, H. Fujiwara. Concepts in Magnetic Resonance Part B: Magn. Res. Engineer., 33, 192 (2008). DOI: 10.1002/CMR.B.20117
- S. Appelt, F.W. Hasing, H. Kuhn, J. Perlo, B. Blumich. Phys. Rev. Lett., 94, 197602 (2005). DOI: 10.1103/PHYSREVLETT.94.197602
- X.J. Chen, H.E. Moller, M.S. Chawla, G.P. Cofer, B. Driehuys, L.W. Hedlund, G.A. Johnson. Magn. Res. Med., 42, 721 (1999). DOI: 10.1002/(SICI)1522- 2594(199910)42:4<729::AID-MRM15>3.0.CO;2-2
- S. Appelt, T. Unlu, K. Zilles, N.J. Shah, S. Baer-Lang, H. Halling. Appl. Phys. Lett., 75 (3), 427 (1999). DOI: 10.1063/1.124397
- R. Seydoux, A. Pines, M. Haake, J.A. Reimer. J. Phys. Chem. B, 103 (22), 4629 (1999). DOI: 10.1021/JP9821984
- K. Ruppert, J.R. Brookeman, K.D. Hagspiel, B. Driehuys, J.P. Mugler III. NMR in Biomedicine, 13, 220 (2000). DOI: 10.1002/1099-1492(200006)13:4<220::AID-NBM638>3.0.CO;-F
- K. Ruppert, J.R. Brookeman, K.D. Hagspiel, J.P. Mugler III. Magn. Res. Med., 44, 349 (2000). DOI: 10.1002/1522-2594(200009)44:3<349::AID-MRM2>3.0.CO;2-J
- T. Meersmann, J.W. Logan, R. Simonutti, S. Caldarelli, A. Comotti, P. Sozzani, L. Kaiser, A. Pines. J. Phys. Chem. A, 104 (50), 11665 (2000). DOI: 10.1021/JP002322V
- F.W. Hersman, L.C. Ruset, S. Ketel, I. Muradian, S. Covrig, J. Distelbrink, W. Porter, D. Watt, J. Ketel, J. Brackett, A. Hope, S. Patz. Acad. Radiol., 15 (6), 683 (2008). DOI: 10.1016/j.acra.2007.09.020
- A. Asfour. J. Biomed. Sci. Engineer., 03, 1099 (2010). DOI: 10.4236/JBISE.2010.311143
- P. Nikolaou, N. Whiting, N.A. Eschmann, K. Chaffee, B.M. Goodson, M. Barlow. J. Magn. Res., 197 (2), 249 (2009). DOI: 10.1016/j.jmr.2008.12.015
- Z.I. Cleveland, H.E. Muller, L.W. Hedlund, B. Driehuys. J. Phys. Chem. B, 113 (37), 12489 (2009). DOI: 10.1021/jp9049582
- G. Schrank, Z. Ma, A. Schoeck, B. Saam. Phys. Rev. A, 80, 063424 (2009). DOI: 10.1103/PHYSREVA.80.063424
- J.S. Six, T. Hughes-Riley, K.F. Stupic, G.E. Pavlovskaya, T. Meersmann. Public Library of Science one (PLOS 1), 7 (11), e49927 (2012). DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.004992
- P. Nikolaou, A.M. Coffey, L.L. Walkup, B.M. Gust, C.D. La Pierre, E. Koehnemann, M.J. Barlow, M.S. Rosen, B.M. Goodson, E.Y. Chekmenev. J. Am. Chem. Soc., 136 (4), 1636 (2014). DOI: 10.1021/ja412093d
- J.R. Birchall, R.K. Irwin, M.R.H. Chowdhury, P. Nikolaou, B.M. Goodson, M.J. Barlow, A. Shcherbakov, E.Y. Chekmenev. Anal. Chem., 93 (8), 3883 (2021). DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.0c04545
- J.R. Birchall, P. Nikolaou, A.M. Coffey, B.E. Kidd, M. Murphy, M. Molway, L.B. Bales, B. Goodson, R.K. Irwin, M.J. Barlow, E.Y. Chekmenev. Anal. Chem., 92 (6), 4309 (2020). DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.9b05051
- P. Nikolaou, A.M. Coffey, M.J. Barlow, M.S. Rosen, B.M. Goodson, E.Y. Chekmenev. Analyt. Chem., 86 (16), 8206 (2014). DOI: 10.1021/ac501537w
- P. Nikolaou, A.M. Coffey, L.L. Walkup, M. Gust, N. Whiting, H. Newton, I. Muradyan, M. Dabaghyan, K. Ranta, G.D. Moroz, M. Rosen, S. Patz, M. Barlow, E. Chekmenev, B.M. Goodson. Magn. Res. Imag., 32 (5), 541 (2014). DOI: 10.1016/j.mri.2014.02.002
- W.T. Lee, G. Zheng, C.L. Talbot, X. Tong, T. D'Adam, S. Parnell, M. de Veer, G.R. Polglase, S.B. Hooper, B.R. Thompson, F. Thien, G.F. Egan. Magn. Res. Imag., 79, 112 (2021). DOI: 10.1016/j.mri.2021.02.010
- J. Skinner, K. Ranta, A.M. Coffey, P. Nikolaou, M.S. Rosen, E.Y. Chekmenev, P.G. Morris, M.J. Barlow, B.M. Goodson. J. Magn. Res., 312, 06686 (2020). DOI: 10.1016/j.jmr.2020.106686
- H. Imai, H. Yoshimura, A. Kimura, H. Fujiwara. Scientific Reports, 7 (1), 7352 (2017). DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-07695-7
- Hyperpolarized Gas MRI for Pulmonary Disease Assessment: Interview with Richard Hullihen, CEO of Polarean Imaging. https://www.medgadget.com/2020/09/hyperpolarized-gas- mri-for-pulmonary-disease-assessment.html. [Date of access: 29.12.2021]
- G. Norquay, G.J. Collier, M. Rao, N.J. Stewart, J.M. Wild. Phys. Rev. Lett., 121, 153201 (2018). DOI: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.121.153201
- M. Rao, N.J. Stewart, G. Norquay, P.D. Griffiths, J.M. Wild. Magn. Res. Med., 75 (6), 2227 (2016). DOI: 10.1002/mrm.26241
- R. Jimenez-Marti nez, D.J. Kennedy, M. Rosenbluh, E. Donley, S. Knappe, S.J. Seltzer, H.L. Ring, V. Bajaj, J. Kitching. Nature Commun., 5, 3905 (2014). DOI: 10.1038/ncomms4908
- D.J. Kennedy, S. Seltzer, R. Jimenez-Marti nez, H.L. Ring, N.S. Malecek, S. Knappe, E. Donley, J. Kitching, V. Bajaj, A. Pines. Nature Sci. Reports, 7, 43994 (2017). DOI: 10.1038/srep43994
- M. Kelley, A. Burant, R.T. Branca. J. Appl. Phys., 128, 144901 (2020). DOI: 10.1063/5.0019074
- H. Fujiwara, H. Imai, A. Kimura. Analytical Sci.: Intern. J. Jpn. Society Analyt. Chem., 35, 869 (2019). DOI: 10.2116/analsci.19P047
- C. Chauvin, L. Liagre, C. Boutin, E. Mari, E. Leonce, G. Carret, B. Coltrinari, P. Berthault. Rev. Sci. Instrum., 87, 016105 (2016). DOI: 10.1063/1.4940928
- S.E. Korchak, W. Kilian, L. Mitschang. Appl. Magn. Res., 44, 65 (2013). DOI: 10.1007/s00723-012-0425-7
- M.S. Freeman, K. Emami, B. Driehuys. Phys. Rev. A, Atomic, Molec., Opt. Phys., 90, 023406 (2014). DOI: 10.1103/PHYSREVA.90.023406
- Xenon MRI Platform. https://polarean.com/xenon-mri-platform/\#hyperpolarizer. [Date of access: 28.12.2021]
- J.W. Plummer, K. Emami, A. Dummer, J.C. Woods, L.L. Walkup, Z.I. Cleveland. J. Magn. Res., 320, 106845 (2020). DOI: 10.1016/j.jmr.2020.106845
- J.M. Wild, H. Marshall, M. Bock, P.M. Jakob, M. Puderbach, F. Molinari, E.J. Van Beek, J. Biederer. Insights Imag., 3, 345 (2012). DOI: 10.1007/s13244-012-0176-x
- R. Freeman, R. Smith. Magnetic Resonance in Chemistry and Medicine. (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2003)
- H.U. Kauczor, D. Hofmann, K. Kreitner , H. Nilgens, R. Surkau, W. Weil, A. Potthast, M.V. Knopp, E.W. Otten, M. Thelen. Radiology, 201 (2), 564 (1996). DOI: 10.1148/radiology.201.2.8888259
- R. Aysola, E.E. de Lange, M. Castro, T. Altes. J. Magn. Res. Imag., 32, 1379 (2010). DOI: 10.1002/jmri.22388
- A.J. Swift, J.M. Wild, S. Fichele, N. Woodhouse, S. Fleming, J. Waterhouse, R. Lawson, M. Paley, E.J. Van Beek. Europ. J. Radiology, 54 (3), 352 (2005). DOI: 10.1016/J.EJRAD.2004.08.002
- L. Donnelly, J.R. Mac Fall, H.P. McAdams, J.M. Majura, J. Smith, D.P. Frush, P. Bogonad, H. Charles, C.E. Ravin. Radiology, 212 (3), 885 (1999). DOI: 10.1148/RADIOLOGY.212.3.R99SE20885
- F. Hersman, J. Ketel, I. Ruset, S. Ketel, I. Dregely, W. Porter, D. Watt, J. Mugler, T. Altes, K. Ruppert, J. Mata, S. Patz, H. Hatabu, M. Hrovat, I. Muradian, M. Dabaghyan, G. Miller, C. Wang, J. Butler, J. Distelbrin. Proc. Intl. Soc. Mag. Reson. Med., 18 (6), 4598 (2010)
- B. Driehuys, S. Martinez-Jimenez, Z. Cleveland, G.M. Metz, D.M. Beaver, J.C. Nouls, S.S. Kaushik, R. Firszt, C. Willis, K.T. Kelly, J. Wolber, M. Kraft, P. Mc Adams. Radiology, 262 (1), 279 (2012). DOI: 10.1148/radiol.11102172
- A. Fitterman. Theory and Production of Hyperpolarized Xenon Gas for Lung and Brain (Lakehead University, Orillia, Ontario, 2015)
- B. Driehuys, G.P. Cofer, J. Pollaro, J.B. Mackel, L.W. Hedlund, G.A. Johnson. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. (PNAS), 103 (48), 18278 (2006). DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0608458103
- B. Saam, D. Yablonskiy, V. Kodibagkar, J. Leawoods, J.D. Gierada, J. Cooper, S. Lefrak, M. Conradi. Magn. Reson. Med., 44, 174 (2000). DOI: 10.1002/1522- 2594(200008)44:2<174::aid-mrm2>3.0.co;2-4
- S.S. Kaushik, Z.I. Cleveland, G.P. Cofer, G. Metz, D. Beaver, J. Nouls, M. Kraft, W. Auermann, J. Wolber, H.P. McAdams, D. Driehuys. Magn. Res. Med., 65 (4), 1155 (2011). DOI: 10.1002/mrm.22697
- J. Grist, M. Chen, G.J. Collier, B. Raman, G. Abu Eid, A. Mc Intyre, V. Matthews, E. Fraser, Ling-Pei Ho, J.M. Wild, F. Gleeson. Radiology, 301 (1), E353 (2021). DOI: 10.1148/radiol.2021210033
- H. Li, X. Zhao, Y. Wang, X. Lou, Sh. Chen, H. Deng, L. Shi, J. Xie, D. Tang, J. Zhao, L. Bouchard, L. Xia, X. Zhou. Sci. Adv., 7 (1), eabc8180 (2021). DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abc8180
- L. Schroder, T.J. Lowery, C. Hilty, D.E. Wemmer, A. Pines. Science, 314 (5798), 446 (2006). DOI: 10.1126/science.1131847
- Chemical Exchange Saturation Transfer Imaging: Advances and Applications, ed. by M. Mc Mahon, A.A. Gilad, J.W. Bulte, P.C. van Zijl (Pan Stanford Publishing Pte. Ltd, Singapore, 2017), DOI: 10.1201/9781315364421
- M. Luhmer, B.M. Goodson, Y.-Q. Song, D.D. Laws, L. Kaiser, M.C. Cyrier, A. Pines. J. American Chem. Society, 121 (24), 3502 (1998). DOI: 10.1021/JA9841916
- M. Kunth, C. Witte, L. Schroder. J. Chem. Phys., 141 (19), 194202 (2014). DOI: 10.1063/1.4901429
- M. Kunth, C. Witte, L. Schroder. Pharmaceuticals, 14, 79 (2021). DOI: 10.3390/ph14020079
- S.D. Zemerov, I. Dmochowski. Royal Society Chem. Adv., 11 (13), 7693 (2021). DOI: 10.1039/D0RA10765D
- J. Jayapaul, L. Schroder. Contrast Media Molecular Imag., 2019, 9498173 (2019). DOI: 10.1155/2019/9498173
- Positron Emission Tomography, ed. by A. Granov, L. Tiutin, T. Schwarz (Springer- Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, 2013), DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-21120-1.
Подсчитывается количество просмотров абстрактов ("html" на диаграммах) и полных версий статей ("pdf"). Просмотры с одинаковых IP-адресов засчитываются, если происходят с интервалом не менее 2-х часов.
Дата начала обработки статистических данных - 27 января 2016 г.